THE REVOLT OF 1857
The Revolt of 1857 was the most severe outburst of anger and discontent accumulated in the hearts of various sections of the Indian society ever since the inception of British rule in Bengal, following the Battle of Plassey in 1757 and the Battle of Buxar. British historians called it a “Sepoy Mutiny” and the Indian historians termed it as the “First War of Independence”. Though the revolt was started by the Indian soldiers in the service of the East India Company, it soon proliferated all over the country. Millions of peasants, artisans and soldiers fought heroically for over a year and sacrificed their lives so that others might live. Hindus and Muslims kept their religious differences aside and fought together in order to free themselves from foreign subjugation.
The British tried to dismiss this Revolt by merely calling it a “Sepoy Mutiny”, but this Revolt clearly shows the pent-up hatred that the Indians had for the British.
The Revolt did not take place overnight. There were many economic causes hat added fuel to the fire. The British were exploiting the Indian economy and thus leaving many people jobless, helpless and homeless.
There were many social and religious reasons for the Revolt. The British started imposing their religion on the Indians by building churches and by forcing people to convert to Christianity.
Furthermore, the Doctrine of Lapse instigated the political causes of the Revolt.
The Indian Rebellion of 1857 had diverse, political, economic, military, religious and social causes.
Political Causes
Political Factors
1. a) Due to the British expansionist policies, most of the Raja’s, Nawab’s and the zamindar’s, were either dispossessed from their state or became subsidiary to the British.
c) The policy of Trade and Commerce subjugated the state, the policy of indirect subordination (subsidiary alliance), the policy of war and annexation, the policy of direct subordination (doctrine of lapse), the policy of misgovernance (in which Awadh was annexed).
1. a) Due to the British expansionist policies, most of the Raja’s, Nawab’s and the zamindar’s, were either dispossessed from their state or became subsidiary to the British.
c) The policy of Trade and Commerce subjugated the state, the policy of indirect subordination (subsidiary alliance), the policy of war and annexation, the policy of direct subordination (doctrine of lapse), the policy of misgovernance (in which Awadh was annexed).
e) Therefore, those rulers, who lost their states to the British, were naturally against the British and took sides against them during the revolt.
f) However, some of the rulers were in active connivance and collaborated with the British in suppressing the revolt.
2. The period of Dalhousie (1848-1856) is marked as a major factor in the revolt of 1857. A famous policy under his period was ‘Doctrine of Lapse’. Under this, many states, like Satara, Jaitpur, Sambhalpur, Jhansi, were captured by the British who expanded recklessly. Thus, the political factors, i.e. the expansionary policy of the British greatly contributed to the revolt of 1857.
f) However, some of the rulers were in active connivance and collaborated with the British in suppressing the revolt.
2. The period of Dalhousie (1848-1856) is marked as a major factor in the revolt of 1857. A famous policy under his period was ‘Doctrine of Lapse’. Under this, many states, like Satara, Jaitpur, Sambhalpur, Jhansi, were captured by the British who expanded recklessly. Thus, the political factors, i.e. the expansionary policy of the British greatly contributed to the revolt of 1857.
Economic Causes
Economic Factors (economic causes of Revolt of 1857):
1. This was a vital factor as it affected a large section of Indian society. Ever since the grant of Diwani was made to the British in 1765, land revenue became an issue of many burdens. British Government had imposed ‘pocket area transformation’, that means, the introduction of Permanent Settlement in Bengal, Mahalwari settlement in Central India, and Ryotwari settlement in southern India.
2. These three settlements were highly exploitative, and in particular, the Permanent settlement had created a devastating impact.
1. This was a vital factor as it affected a large section of Indian society. Ever since the grant of Diwani was made to the British in 1765, land revenue became an issue of many burdens. British Government had imposed ‘pocket area transformation’, that means, the introduction of Permanent Settlement in Bengal, Mahalwari settlement in Central India, and Ryotwari settlement in southern India.
2. These three settlements were highly exploitative, and in particular, the Permanent settlement had created a devastating impact.
3. But the high rates of land revenue ruined the prospects of Indian peasantry. Thus the peasants were greatly encouraged to overthrow the British Government from India.
Military causes
• Indian soldiers formed seven-eighth of the total British troops in India. As they were an integral part of the Indian society, they too suffered the consequences of the oppressive British rule.
• The Indian sepoys were looked upon as inferior beings and treated with contempt by their British officers. They were paid much less than the British soldiers. All avenues of the promotion were closed to them as all the higher army posts were reserved for the British.
• They were also influenced by the general fear that their religion was in danger. The order that forbade the sepoys from wearing caste and sectarian marks hurt their sentiments deeply.
• A major cause of resentment that arose ten months prior to the outbreak of the Rebellion was the General Service Enlistment Act of 25 July 1856.
• Deprivation of Foreign Service allowance and the maltreatment of the Indian soldiers in the East India Company.
• There were also grievances over the issue of promotions, based on seniority. This, as well as the increasing number of European officers in the battalions, made promotion a slow progress, and many Indian officers did not reach commissioned rank until they were too old to be effective.
Socio-religious causes
the missionary activities of charitable and philanthropic nature were looked with suspicion as the missionaries used to heckle the Hindus for worshipping many gods and goddesses, and their efforts to convert to Christianity many economically and socially backward community people and in their educational institutions they began to openly canvas about Christianity.
• The Indian sepoys were looked upon as inferior beings and treated with contempt by their British officers. They were paid much less than the British soldiers. All avenues of the promotion were closed to them as all the higher army posts were reserved for the British.
• They were also influenced by the general fear that their religion was in danger. The order that forbade the sepoys from wearing caste and sectarian marks hurt their sentiments deeply.
• A major cause of resentment that arose ten months prior to the outbreak of the Rebellion was the General Service Enlistment Act of 25 July 1856.
• Deprivation of Foreign Service allowance and the maltreatment of the Indian soldiers in the East India Company.
• There were also grievances over the issue of promotions, based on seniority. This, as well as the increasing number of European officers in the battalions, made promotion a slow progress, and many Indian officers did not reach commissioned rank until they were too old to be effective.
Socio-religious causes
the missionary activities of charitable and philanthropic nature were looked with suspicion as the missionaries used to heckle the Hindus for worshipping many gods and goddesses, and their efforts to convert to Christianity many economically and socially backward community people and in their educational institutions they began to openly canvas about Christianity.
All these made the Indians come to the conclusion that their religion was in danger and this suspicion aroused the religious and social sentiment of the Hindus against the British. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan admits that during the famines of 1837, many orphans became Christians.
The intervention of the British in social traditions by prohibiting the practice of Sati in 1829, passing laws relating to succession of property in 1832 and 1856, Widow Remarriage Act in 1856 and the Religious Disabilities Act of 1856 further strengthened the view of the conservatives that the Hindu religion and customs were being tampered by the British with the specific objective of Christianizing India.
In a way, partially the outburst of 1857 was a revolt of the old against the new, of Indian conservatism against the arrogant British hegemony and Christian indoctrination. The conservation of religion took the shape of the rallying point in the revolt which was seen as a war of religion by the sepoys and the masses to some extent but religious grievances were not the total rallying points of the great revolt.
Events
This war was not spread throughout India but it was limited to few areas mainly Meerut, Delhi, Kanpur, Lucknow etc. The main event which became the immediate cause of the war was the refusal of the Sepoys to use the grease-covered cartridges (greased with the fat of pig and cow) on January 23, 1857. At the same time, an Indian sepoy killed two British officers at Barrackpore, when he was forced to use greased cartridges. He was arrested and hanged to death on April 8, 1857. This news spread as fast as jungle fire.
Meerut
On 6th May 1857 A.D., 85 out of 90 Indian soldiers at Meerut refused to bite the greased cartridges with their teeth. These 85 soldiers were court-martialled and imprisoned for 10 years. They were stripped of their uniforms in the presence of the entire Indian crowd. It was too much of a disgrace and this incident sent a wave of indignation. On 10th May 1857, the Indian soldiers at Meerut broke into open revolt. They released their companions and murdered a few European officers. On the night of 10th May, the mutineers marched to Delhi and reached there on 11th May.
Delhi
The revolutionaries reached from Meerut to Delhi on 11th May 1857 and the small British garrison at Delhi was not able to resist and consequently fell into their hands within 2 days. The Mughal Emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar, was proclaimed Emperor of India. In order to regain Delhi, Sir John Lawrence sent a strong British force commanded by John Nicholson. After a long siege of four months, the British recovered Delhi in September 1857 A.D. The Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar was captured, his two sons and a grandson were shot dead before his eyes and he was sent to Rangoon where he died in the year 1862 A. D.
Kanpur
At Kanpur, the struggle for Independence was led by Nana Sahib (The adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II). A number of British fell into his hands and he showed great kindness to them. But when he heard about the inhuman attitude of Gen. O’Neil towards Indians, he became furious and killed all the British. General Havelock captured Kanpur after defeating Nana Sahib in a hotly contested battle on June 17, 1857. Later on Nana Sahib, with the help of Tantya Topi, recaptured Kanpur in November 1857 but not for a long time and British defeated them once again in a fierce war from December 1 to 6, 1857. Nana Sahib fled towards Nepal, where he probably died, while Tantya Tope migrated to Kalpi.
Jhansi and Gwalior
The leader of the revolutionaries in Central India was Rani Laxmi Bai of Jhansi. General Sir Huge Rose attacked Jhansi in March 1858 but the brave Rani Laxmi Bai kept the British General unnerved for quite some time. She with the help of Tantya Tope created problems for the British troops. Both fought many successful battles against the British. But the personal velour of Rani and Tantya Tope could not match the resources at the command of the British. Tantya Tope was betrayed by the Gwalior Chief Man Singh and fell into the hands of the British. He was subsequently hanged on April 18, 1859.
Conclusion
Most of the European historians have pointed out that it was a revolt of Indian soldiers who were offended at the use of greased cartridges. They further assert that it was not a national war of independence, in as much as the revolt was confined to a particular region and not to the whole of India; large areas like the Punjab, Sind, and Rajputana remained unaffected. It was admittedly a great and courageous effort by patriotic Indians to get rid of the foreign domination. It was a glorious landmark in our history in as much as Hindus and Muslims fought shoulder to shoulder to win back their lost independence. One cannot but admire the patriotic spirit of boatmen of Lucknow who refused to carry British soldiers across the river. The sepoys and the people fought gallantly up to the very end. Though the revolt was unsuccessful, the spirit of the people remained unshaken. The revolt left an impression on the minds of the Indian people and thus paved the way for the rise of a strong national movement.
End of the Revolt
The British government came out with all the powers to suppress the revolt. The sepoys fought the battle with their limited strength for four months. Then, the sepoys had to retreat. On 25th September British troops regained Delhi. Bahadur Shah was arrested. Nana Saheb lost the battle of Kanpur. His commander Tantia Topi continued the fight up to April 1859 A.D. and surrendered to the British force. Lakshmi Bai of Jhansi lost her life in the battleground. Kunwar Singh, Bakht Khan of Bihar, Bahadur Khan, Moulavi Ahmed of Faizabad lost their lives one after the other. By the end of 1859 A.D., the British power was reestablished in troubled areas.
The reason for the failure of the revolt
There were several reasons behind the failure of this revolt.
There were several reasons behind the failure of this revolt.
There was no central organization of the sepoys. There was no unified action also. Bahadur Shah, Nana Saheb, Lakshmi Bai, no one had accepted as a real leader. They had different goals and times again they had contradictions.
The British had a huge number of forces. New groups of soldiers were sent to India after the end of the Crimean war. Fresh army men came from Singapore. As a result of these, in the middle of the revolt, the strength of the British force was doubled. The chance of a win became remote.
The sepoys had no improved arms with them. On the other hand, the British force had a huge and improved armory. They could not match improved guns and rifles with their old model musket, spears, and sword. So the defeat was almost certain.
Nature of the Great Revolt of 1857
There are differences of opinions amongst historians about the character of this great revolt. Some historians are of opinion that the revolt in the North-Western province was a lawless revolt by a group of sepoys.
The British had a huge number of forces. New groups of soldiers were sent to India after the end of the Crimean war. Fresh army men came from Singapore. As a result of these, in the middle of the revolt, the strength of the British force was doubled. The chance of a win became remote.
The sepoys had no improved arms with them. On the other hand, the British force had a huge and improved armory. They could not match improved guns and rifles with their old model musket, spears, and sword. So the defeat was almost certain.
Nature of the Great Revolt of 1857
There are differences of opinions amongst historians about the character of this great revolt. Some historians are of opinion that the revolt in the North-Western province was a lawless revolt by a group of sepoys.
On the other hand, some historians believe that it was more than just a sepoy mutiny as it had a large mass base. Though in the beginning, it was like sepoy mutiny, but later on it turned out to be a real mass upsurge.
On the centenary of the great revolt, Dr. Ramesh Chandra Majumder wrote and published a book entitled ‘Sepoy Mutiny’ and ‘Revolt of Eighteen Fifty-Seven’. Dr. Majumder thought that this was nothing but a revolt of the sepoy. He also said that in some places few non-military persons came out in support of the sepoys but they were local landlords, talukdars and feudal leaders. In his opinion, it was nothing better than the feudalistic reaction of the revolt.
On the centenary of the great revolt, Dr. Ramesh Chandra Majumder wrote and published a book entitled ‘Sepoy Mutiny’ and ‘Revolt of Eighteen Fifty-Seven’. Dr. Majumder thought that this was nothing but a revolt of the sepoy. He also said that in some places few non-military persons came out in support of the sepoys but they were local landlords, talukdars and feudal leaders. In his opinion, it was nothing better than the feudalistic reaction of the revolt.
But many historians are of opinion that the Great movement of 1857 A.D. cannot be termed as narrow, isolated and reactionary. The sepoys established a symbol of Hindu-Muslim unity by electing Bahadur Shah as the Emperor of India. In the Ajamgarh declaration, a call was given to people of all classes of mass to unite against the British rule. It may be righty that they had no idea about national government, but nationalism was there. So it can be called a national movement.
Importance and Outcome of the Great Revolt of 1857
It can be said that the great revolt of 1857 A.D. was a failure, but was not fruitless.
1. Awakening of Peasants class: The peasants joined this revolt which was out and out against the British. This was unique.
2. Development of National Feeling: Dr. K. M Panikkar wrote that though the sepoys had limitations and weaknesses, their efforts to make India free from British rule was patriotic work and a progressive step.
4. End of Company Rule: The political result of this great revolt was the end of the company’s rule in India.
4. Queen’s proclamation: The Queen’s Proclamation showered many promises in 1858 A.D. Government service was promised irrespective of caste, religion and on the basis of merit only. Ill framed “doctrine of lapse” of Lord Dalhousie was canceled. New recruitment policy of the army men was announced to see that they could not organize any revolt. In the important positions of the government, no native people (Indian) was given any chance.
MY VIEWS ON THE REVOLT (CONCLUSION).
1. Well, the revolt of 1857 can be concluded as a failure but with a bright side. It ACTED AS AN EXAMPLE to the future revolts and highlighted a very important point that the revolt or any mass movement should have an all India character that is it should have people from different states, religion, caste, race, to attain success.
2. Another point put forth was that it should have a common goal, systematic planning, and strategy.
Now you would be wondering why I said ‘common goal’. well the major difference between the revolt of 1857 and of the movement which took place during the 1940’s(like civil disobedience The Quit India Movement), was that
– People of the south didn’t even participate in the revolt, the rich merchants forbade themselves to take part in this revolt. This is in great contrast with the revolt during the 1940’s in which every member of INDIAN society took part.
Now about the strategy part in the point no.2 in the revolt of 1857, the day of revolt was different from the day it occurred. If all the rulers, artisans, scholars and other important figures had collaborated together I am pretty sure we would have achieved better results.
– People of the south didn’t even participate in the revolt, the rich merchants forbade themselves to take part in this revolt. This is in great contrast with the revolt during the 1940’s in which every member of INDIAN society took part.
Now about the strategy part in the point no.2 in the revolt of 1857, the day of revolt was different from the day it occurred. If all the rulers, artisans, scholars and other important figures had collaborated together I am pretty sure we would have achieved better results.
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